Three Major Cities Rebuilt

A recent work by English historian Kenneth Maxwell recovers the history of the reconstruction of London, Lisbon, and Paris

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Examining the reconstruction efforts of three major European cities was the daunting task undertaken by English historian Kenneth Maxwell in writing The Tale of Three Cities – The Rebuilding of London, Paris, and Lisbon, a work that has just been released in England and the United States with texts in English, Portuguese, and French. It is the result of the author’s reading at the opening of an international colloquium on Luso-Brazilian Art and Literature, held at Harvard University in September 2024.

In this document, entitled “Disaster & Reconstruction: The Challenge of Modernism,” Kenneth Maxwell analyzes the effects of a great fire in London in 1668 and the plans of the notable architect Christopher Wren (1632-1723) to redesign the city; the reconstruction of Lisbon after the great earthquake of 1755, under the direction of the Marquis of Pombal (1699-1782); and the destruction of old Paris and its reconstruction under Napoleon III (1808-1873) and Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann (1809-1891), prefect of the former department of the Seine between 1853 and 1870.

The opening text discusses the transformation that London underwent during the 17th and 18th centuries, initially under the direction of Inigo Jones (1577-1652), considered the first English architect, the first also to study architecture in Italy, responsible for flawless works such as the Queen’s House (1616) in Greenwich and the Banqueting House in Whitehall (1622).

He also designed the piazza (square) of the Convent Garden, as well as a church, of which little remains today, and designed a magnificent palace for King Charles I (1600-1649) that was never built.

As the author notes, the civil war of 1642 ended Inigo Jones’ career, but his influence, inspired by the classical architecture of Rome and Renaissance Italy, remained among the architects who designed the reconstruction of London after the great bubonic epidemic (Black Death) of 1665-1666, which killed about 100,000 people, i.e., a quarter of London’s population, and the great fire of 1666, which destroyed much of the city, from the Tower of London to Fleet Street. It was then that architect Christophen Wren created ambitious plans for the reconstruction of the city, submitting them to King Charles II (1630-1685) that same year.

The monarch, accompanied by his brother, James Stuart (1633-1701), the Duke of York, personally oversaw the demolition of entire streets of houses and the creation of a series of firebreaks (strips of land) to slow the spread of fire. He accepted Christophen Wren’s suggestions, which called for the replacement of medieval streets with wide avenues and squares, including a new cathedral to replace St. Paul’s Cathedral, which had been destroyed by the great fire, as well as the construction of brick and stone buildings.

However, after much dispute with the owners of the destroyed houses, the only element of Christopher Wren’s project that was implemented was the canalization of the River Fleet. Be that as it may, as the historian points out, 130 years later, Christopher Wren’s ideas would be used on the banks of the Potomac River for the construction of Washington DC, the new capital of the United States.

To give an idea of the disaster, the author recalls that before the fire, London was a jumble of wooden buildings. He also points out that, at the time, 200,000 people were left homeless in five days and more than 13,000 houses and buildings were destroyed.

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The redevelopment of London ended up having a major influence on the reconstruction of Lisbon, which was hit by an earthquake on November 1, 1755, as Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, future Count of Oeiras and Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State during the reign of King José I (1750-1777), had been Portugal’s ambassador to England between 1739 and 1743 and was able to contemplate daily the works built in the previous century. José I (1750-1777), had been Portugal’s ambassador to England between 1739 and 1743 and was able to contemplate the works built in the previous century on a daily basis, as he lived in two residences in Golden Square, in the west center of the capital, a favorite location of members of the aristocracy and diplomats.

The earthquake, followed by a tsunami, was the strongest ever to hit Europe, destroying around 45 convents and monasteries, many houses and the Royal Palace on the banks of the Tagus River, as well as sinking the riverside quay, reducing everything to a pile of rubble. More than 15,000 people died, but Pombal’s response was swift and effective, ordering the burial of the dead and even the removal of bodies to the high seas to prevent the spread of disease, as well as imposing strict measures to prevent price increases for essential foods. Not to mention the measures he took to prevent looting and pillaging, with offenders summarily hanged.

As Kenneth Maxwell recalls, with the help of architects Manuel da Maia (1677-1768), Eugênio dos Santos (1711-1760), and Carlos Mardel (c.1695-1763), Pombal had approved by King José I (1703-1750) a plan that provided for the total reinvention of the central core of Lisbon, “with the annulment of previous street patterns and property rights.” José I (1714-1777) a plan that provided for the total reinvention of the central core of Lisbon, “with the annulment of previous street patterns and property rights.”

The plan replaced the old royal square, known as Terreiro do Paço, with the current Praça do Comércio, which in 1775 received a bronze statue in honor of King José I, which can still be seen today. The square would be a place for ministries and government departments, commerce, customs, and the stock exchange, replicating the plans of Christophen Wren for a merchant city in London and Inigo Jones for the Convent Garden.

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Finally, Kenneth Maxwell shows the new Paris that resulted from the futuristic vision of Napoleon III, an authoritarian ruler who maintained his reign for 18 years, until he led France into a catastrophic war with Bismarck’s Prussia (1815-1898). The monarch supported Baron Haussmann, mayor of the Seine, with an iron fist in his persistence to destroy old Paris to introduce modern water and sewage systems, as well as wide avenues lined with uniform buildings, which would eventually bear his name, as they became known as “Haussmann buildings.”

The works he designed would last less than 20 years and result in a totally planned city with straight, wide boulevards that cut through medieval slums, using legislation to confiscate private property, which meant that thousands of buildings and houses were condemned and demolished.

This process, which included the confiscation of property based on the right of expropriation (eminent domain), would later be confirmed during the legislature presided over by Charles Auguste Louis Joseph, Count of Morny (1811-1865), Napoleon III’s half-brother.

Based on this draconian legislation, the works would eventually put an end to the slums that were a source of diseases such as cholera, responsible for the deaths of more than 30,000 people between the 1830s and 1860s. As a result of this redevelopment, in 1870, the city gained underground gas conduits, with the installation of 33,000 outlets for public lighting, public buildings, and private homes.

From then on, modern, new, and spacious Paris, already known as the City of Light, would outshine the hitherto envied London. Haussmann also commissioned major engineering works to bring water through new aqueducts and artesian wells. Many schools were also modernized, including the famous Sorbonne, the faculty of medicine. Not to mention the grand masked balls, diplomatic receptions, and the first Universal Exhibition in 1855, which Haussmann would organize.

Haussmann, at the behest of Napoleon III, also sought to create in Paris the great parks of London, such as Hyde Park and St. James Park, which the monarch had so admired during his exile in the English capital. This was the origin of the construction of the Bois de Boulogne and other large Parisian parks.

In concluding his research, Kenneth Maxwell observes that, while today the streets of London remain as they were before the great fire, when Christopher Wren was denied the opportunity to redesign the city, Lisbon and Paris remain as the Marquis of Pombal (and Maia, Santos, and Mardel) and Napoleon III (and Haussmann) imagined them, both rebuilt to reflect modernity.

This is a study that will now become indispensable for anyone who wants to learn about or even write about the history of these three great and luminous cities.

*Adelto Gonçalves, journalist, holds a PhD in Portuguese literature from the University of São Paulo (USP). Author of several books, including Bocage – o perfil perdido (Imesp).

Translated from the original Portuguese article published on July 9, 2025.

The Tale of Three Cities: The Rebuilding of London, Paris, and Lisbon